Glossary of Terms and Concepts Relevant to Durkheim

A Durkheim Glossary

This glossary is an initial attempt to provide brief definitions of terms and concepts useful to the understanding of Durkheim and his works. I'm sure that many of you will want to add things. Please do so by sending me whatever is lacking. Like most electronic documents, the glossary should always be viewed as incomplete and subject to continuous additions, revisions, and emendations. It probably contains some errors, and it palpably contains enormous gaps. I expect to continuously correct the errors and fill in the gaps, while also linking these conceptual references to other, more detailed information about the terms and concepts described elsewhere in the Durkheim website.

To this end, I sincerely hope that each of you reading these pages will provide me with additional material, comments, suggestions, and so on. This is an exercise in continuous, collective authorship by any and all interested in the life and work of Durkheim as well as the Durkheimians. Your contributions are more than welcome.

l'Action française A political group founded in 1899, which stood for "integral nationalism." From 1908 it engaged in extreme monarchist, Roman Catholic, and anti-Semitic propaganda - though denounced from monarchist headquarters and excommunicated (1926-39) by Rome. Young members of the party (the camelots du roi) indulged in political hooliganism. Its organ, L'Action française (1899-1944), appeared daily from 1908, exercising considerable influence among die-hards and right-wing intellectuals. The editors and chief polemicists were Maurras and L. Daudet; contributors included Bainville, Massis, Bernanos (for a time), Rebatet and Brasillach. The political comment was provocative and often scurrilous, the literary standard consistently high. From 1940 the paper supported Pétain, and in 1944 it was suppressed.

agrégation See concours d'agrégation.

agrégé A successful candidate in the concours d'agrégation.

l'Année philosophique Philosophical journal founded by Charles Renouvier in 1867, published annually until 1869, and then again from 1890 to 1913. From 1872 to 1885 it was a weekly, and from 1885 to 1889 it was published monthly (with variations), during which times it was called La Critique philosophique. Renouvier was co-editor from 1890 to 1900.

l'Année psychologique The psychology journal established in 1895 by Alfred Binet, who remained director of the journal until his death in 1911.

l'Année sociologique Journal founded by Durkheim in 1898, which published until 1913. The key organ of the Durkheim school in France.

anomie A state of "normlessness." Typically, the condition exists in times of rapid social change, when existing rules, habits, and beliefs no longer hold and alternatives have yet to arise. Durkheim coined the term to describe a type of suicide that he associated with the loss of a particular way of life.

l'Avenir The Liberal Catholic newspaper published by Lamennais in 1830-2, with the motto "Dieu et Liberté."

baccalauréat The secondary school examination which grants qualification to enter the university.

bachelier, -ière Any person who has passed the baccalauréat.

Bibliothèques Sociologique Internationale Founded by René Worms in 1893.

concours d'agrégation An annual, competitive examination - open to men and women who have obtained their first university degree (the licence) - for appointment to a limited number of teaching posts in lycées. An agrégéis a successful candidate. The prestige of the agrégation has long been extremely high, although it is no longer the sole method of recruiting teachers for the lycées.

La Critique philosophique See L'Année philosophique.

Falloux, La Lois A law of 1850 regulating primary and secondary education, named after its chief sponsor, who was a Catholic.

Institute International de Sociologie Founded by RenéWorms in 1893.

July Monarchy The period of the reign of Louis-Philippe (1830-1848), so-called because it followed the July Revolution.

Kulturkampf The repressive political movement in Germany in the 1870s against the Roman Catholic Church. In 1871, Bismarch suppressed the Catholic department of the Prussian Ministry of Public Worship and in 1872 appointed P. L. A. Falk as Minister of Public Worship. Under his aegis the famous May Laws (1873) were passed. In view of the strong opposition aroused, Bismarck gradually became convinced that a concordat would serve the German Empire better. At the end of the 1870s the previous policy was reversed and peace was made with the new Pope, Leo XIII.

licence The French equivalent to a bachelor's degree, taken at a university. The licence ès lettres is the equivalent of the bachelor of arts degree, while the licence ès sciences is the equivalent of the bachelor of science degree.

Ligue de la patrie française Founded in 1899 during the Dreyfus Affair, typified all that was bigoted, anti-Semitic, and reactionary in public life.

Ligue des droits de l'homme Founded during the Dreyfus Affair to safeguard the rights of citizens; the counterpart of the Ligue de la patrie française.

Ligue des patriotes Founded in 1882 by Paul Déroulède (1846-1914) to avenge France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. It supported Boulangisme for a time, and campaigned for revision of the constitution and a plebiscitary republic under a strong leader.

lycées and collèges A lycée is a secondary school of the State, headed by a proviseur and staffed by professeurs agrégés or professeurs licenciés. A collège is also a secondary school, either independent and denominational (usually Roman Catholic), or maintained by a local authority (possibly with some funding by the State). From the 16th century on, secondary education developed rapidly, and many schools were founded by the religious orders, notably the Jesuits (e.g., the Collège de Clermont) and later the Congrégation de l'Oratoire (e.g., the Collège de Juilly, f. 1638). Most of these schools were suppressed during the Revolution, though some were later resuscitated as lycées - the name adopted for the secondary schools under Napoleon's unified system of state secondary and higher education. At first, the lycées were run on semi-military lines, and established only in the big towns; in the smaller towns it was left to the municipality to provide secondary education by founding and supporting collèges. Famous Paris lycées include the Lycée Condorcet (f. 1804, and first known as the Lycée Bonaparte), the Lycée Henri IV (f. 1804 as the Lycée Napoléon), the Lycée Louis-le-Grand (the former Collège de Clermont), and the Lycée Saint-Louis (f. 1820 on the site of the old Collège d'Harcourt).

Mercure de France
(1) Originally the Mercure galant (1672-1820, a periodical founded by Jean Donneau de Visé (1638-1710), the author of farces and vaudevilles, and a critic of Molière. It carried news of court and literary circles, literary criticism, poetry, etc., combining politics and literature in a light, agreeable form suited to a wide public. Published monthly from 1678, it was highly popular and enjoyed the favour of Louis XIV, though it was attacked from certain literary quarters (e.g., La Bruyère). In 1724, it became the Mercure de France, with a greater literary scope and semi-official status (its editor was appointed by the government and profits were devoted to pensions for men of letters). Just before the Revolution the management was in the hands of C.-J. Panckoucke. Its literary features continued during the Revolutionary era (when for a time it was called Le Mercure français), and it was little molested. Napoleon suppressed it in 1811, but it reappeared after his fall and was popular with the constitutional party just after the Restoration. Contributors included T. Corneille, G. Raynal, Marmontel, and Mallet du Pan (editors), La Harpe, Chamfort, and Voltaire.

(2) A famous literary and artistic monthly founded by Alfred Vallete, his wife Rachilde, and other Symbolists, and published between 1890 and 1965. Initially it was particularly associated with Symbolism, but it made a feature of printing original work by writers of all schools and nationalities.

Modernism, Catholic A movement within the Roman Catholic Church which aimed at bringing the tradition of Catholic belief into closer relation with the modern outlook in philosophy, the historical and other sciences, and social ideas. It arouse spontaneously in several countries in the late 19th century. It was especially strong in France. The main tenets of the movement were: (1) whole hearted adoption of the critical view of the Bible, by then generally accepted outside the Roman Catholic Church; (2) an inclination to reject the "intellectualism" of Scholastic theology and to subordinate doctrine to practice; and (3) a teleological attitude to history, finding the meaning of the historic process in its issue rather than in its origins. Since the Church's growth took place under the guidance of the Spirit, the essence of the Gospel will lie in its full expansion rather than in its primitive kernel. This belief was sometimes reflected in extreme scepticism about Christian origins. Leaders of the movement include A. Loisy, M. Blondel, L. Laberthonnière, F. von Hügel, and G. Tyrrell. Leo XIII tolerated the movement. Pius X condemned it in 1907. In the wider sense, the term "Modernist" has been used of radical critics of traditional theology in non-Roman Catholic Churches, especially of the thought associated with the "Modern Churchmen's Union."

Le National A daily paper founded in 1830 by Armand Carrel, Adolphe Thiers, and François-Auguste Mignet just before publication of the ordonnances abolishing liberty of the press. A protest, signed by editors of other papers, and issued from the National's offices, did much to provoke the Revolution of 1830. After 1830, the paper stood for a constitutional monarchy on the English model. Later, it objected to Louis-Philippe's policy of peace at any price and turned Republican. The coup d'état of December, 1851 ended its existence. In 1844-45, Le National published series of articles on the Cours de philosophie positive by Emile Littré, establishing him as Comte's chief disciple.

Rerum Novarum (1891) An encyclical of Leo XIII, intended to apply traditional Catholic teaching to the conditions created by the Industrial Revolution. On the ground that society originated in the family, it proclaimed private property a natural right and condemned socialism as infringing it; it upheld the ideal of a just wage, defined as "enough to support the wage-earner in reasonable and frugal comfort" with a family; and it maintained that the natural place of women was in the home. The 40th anniversary of its publication was marked by the issue of Quadragesimo Anno; on the 80th anniversary in 1971, Paul VI published an Apostolic Letter on Social Justice.

Revue Blanche A Symbolist review, founded by Alexandre Natanson in 1891, and published until 1903. Contributors included Mallarmé, H. de Régnier, Vielé-Griffin, Blum (literary and dramatic critic), Debussy (music critic). It was one of the first reviews to introduce Ibsen and Tolstoy to French readers.

Revue de métaphysique et de morale A leading quarterly philosophical journal founded in 1893. At first it was issued six times a year, and after 1920 appeared quarterly. Founded by Xavier Léon, with the collaboration of Elie Halévy. The title of the journal reflected not only a a reaction against positivism but also, affirmatively, a belief that the conclusions of speculative philosophy could have a practical value. Léon served as editor until his death in 1935, when he was succeeded by Dominique Parodi. The latter died in 1955, and Jean Wahl took over, by which time it was the principal French philosophical journal. Until World War II special numbers of the Revue were occasionally devoted to a single topic. For example, issues were devoted to Kant (1904, the centennial of his death), Rousseau (1912, the bicentennial of his birth). American philosophy (1922, with an article by John Dewey, W. E. Hocking, C. I. Lewis, R. B. Perry, and others), Pascal (1923, the tercentenary of his birth), Hegel (1931, the centennial of his death), and Descartes (1937, the tercentenary of the Discourse on Method). The journal's contributors have included all French philosophers of note as well as many eminent foreigners, such as Bertrand Russell, A. N. Whitehead, and Bernard Bosanquet; Benedetto Croce and Giovanni Gentile; Miguel de Unamuno; and Edmund Husserl. Among the articles of more than ordinary interest which have appeared in the journal are Henri Poincaré's "La Logique de l'infini" (1909), Henri Bergson's "L'Intuition philosophique" (1911), Étienne Gilson's "Art et métaphysique" (1916), Gabriel Marcel's "Existence et objectivité" (1925), Léon Brunschvicg's "Religion et philosophie" (1935), JoséFerrater Mora's "Philosophie et architecture" (1955), and Wahl's "Physique atomique et connaissance humaine" (1962).

Revue des Deux Mondes Founded in 1829 as a review largely devoted to home and foreign affairs, it was acquired in 1831 by François Buloz (1803-77), sometime editor of the Revue de Paris and director of the Comédie-française. He developed its literary and philosophical sides and made it one of the best periodicals of its kind in Europe. Published fornightly from 1832, its early contributors included Balzac, Hugo, Musset, Vigny, G. Sand, Sainte-Beuve, Mérimée. Having merged with Hommes et Mondes in 1956, it survives as the monthly Nouvelle Revue des Deux Mondes.

Revue historique Founded in 1876 by Gabriel Monod as a quarterly historical journal.

Revue international de sociologie Journal founded by René Worms in 1893.

Revue philosophique de la France et de l'étranger Founded in 1876 by Théodule Ribot, who served as editor for the next 40 years, until his death in 1916. Originally issued monthly and later issued six times a year, it is now published quarterly. Under Ribot's direction, the Revue gave primary emphasis to articles on psychology. Philosophy began to gain predominance nunder Ribot's successor, Lucien Lévy-Bruhl, who edited the Revue for 23 years until his death in 1939. The editors in succeeding years, when philosophy was fully established as the main arena of discussion, were Émile Brehier and Paul Masson-Oursel (1940-52), Masson-Oursel and Pierre-Maxime Schuhl (1952-56), and Schuhl alone (after 1956). Within philosophy, the Revue's strongest contribution has been represented not so much by publication of original hypotheses as by careful analysis and criticism of old and new viewpoints. Useful articles, for example, have been published on Leibniz, Hume, and English linguistic philosophy. An entire issue was devoted to Lévy-Bruhl in 1957 on the one hundredth anniversary of his birth. The coverage of philosophy "de l'étranger" has consisted in large part of some translations from English and German, extensive critical reviews of books, and summaries of periodical articles. Among the more original contributions in the Revue have been C. S. Peirce's "La Logique de la science" (1878-9), Étienne Gilson's "Essai sur la vie intérieure" (1920), Raymond Ruyer's "Ce qui est vivant et ce qui est mort dans la matérialisme" (1933), and Georges Gurvitch's "Le Problème de la sociologie de la connaissance" (1957-8). Famous contributors have included Rudolf Hermann Lotze, Herbert Spencer, J. S. Mill, Wilhelm Wundt, Henri Bergson, and Georges Sorel.

Société française de philosophie Professional society founded by Xavier Léon in 1901.

Société de Sociologie de Paris Founded by RenéWorms in Paris in 1895.

Syllabus Errorum A set of 80 theses, already condemned in earlier pronouncements of Pius IX and promulgated as erroneous in 1864. They covered a wide area, including pantheism, rationalism, the Church and its rights, civil society and its relation to the Church, ethics, and modern Liberalism. The covering letter seemd to make the Syllabus dogmatically binding. Its issue aroused a storm of protest.

Ultramontanism A tendency in the Roman Catholic Church which favors the centralization of authority in the Papal Curia as opposed to national and diocesan independence. It developed in the 17th and 18th centuries, when national movements such as Gallicanism and Josephinism became discredited either as involved in definite heresy or as countenancing the liberal anti-Christian movements which found expression in the French Revolution of 1789. The main stages of the triumph of Ultramonantism were the revival in 1814 of the Jesuit Order, which was the mainstay of curial as opposed to local authority; the publication in 1864 of the Syllabus, in which Catholicism and liberalism were held to be incompatible; and the declaration of the Vatican Council in 1870 that the Pope is infallible when he makes a solemn pronouncement on faith or morals.

l'Action française	A political group founded in 1899, which stood for "integral nationalism." From 1908 it engaged in extreme monarchist, Roman Catholic, and anti-Semitic propaganda - though denounced from monarchist headquarters and excommunicated (1926-39) by Rome. Young members of the party (the camelots du roi) indulged in political hooliganism. Its organ, L'Action française (1899-1944), appeared daily from 1908, exercising considerable influence among die-hards and right-wing intellectuals. The editors and chief polemicists were Maurras and L. Daudet; contributors included Bainville, Massis, Bernanos (for a time), Rebatet and Brasillach. The political comment was provocative and often scurrilous, the literary standard consistently high. From 1940 the paper supported Pétain, and in 1944 it was suppressed.
agrégation	See concours d'agrégation.
agrégé	A successful candidate in the concours d'agrégation.
l'Année philosophique	Philosophical journal founded by Charles Renouvier in 1867, published annually until 1869, and then again from 1890 to 1913. From 1872 to 1885 it was a weekly, and from 1885 to 1889 it was published monthly (with variations), during which times it was called La Critique philosophique. Renouvier was co-editor from 1890 to 1900.
l'Année psychologique	The psychology journal established in 1895 by Alfred Binet, who remained director of the journal until his death in 1911.
l'Année sociologique	Journal founded by Durkheim in 1898, which published until 1913. The key organ of the Durkheim school in France.
anomie	A state of "normlessness." Typically, the condition exists in times of rapid social change, when existing rules, habits, and beliefs no longer hold and alternatives have yet to arise. Durkheim coined the term to describe a type of suicide that he associated with the loss of a particular way of life.
l'Avenir	The Liberal Catholic newspaper published by Lamennais in 1830-2, with the motto "Dieu et Liberté."
baccalauréat	The secondary school examination which grants qualification to enter the university.
bachelier, -ière	Any person who has passed the baccalauréat.
Bibliothèques Sociologique Internationale	Founded by René Worms in 1893.
concours d'agrégation	An annual, competitive examination - open to men and women who have obtained their first university degree (the licence) - for appointment to a limited number of teaching posts in lycées. An agrégéis a successful candidate. The prestige of the agrégation has long been extremely high, although it is no longer the sole method of recruiting teachers for the lycées.
La Critique philosophique	See L'Année philosophique.
Falloux, La Lois	A law of 1850 regulating primary and secondary education, named after its chief sponsor, who was a Catholic.
Institute International de Sociologie	Founded by RenéWorms in 1893.
July Monarchy	The period of the reign of Louis-Philippe (1830-1848), so-called because it followed the July Revolution.
Kulturkampf	The repressive political movement in Germany in the 1870s against the Roman Catholic Church. In 1871, Bismarch suppressed the Catholic department of the Prussian Ministry of Public Worship and in 1872 appointed P. L. A. Falk as Minister of Public Worship. Under his aegis the famous May Laws (1873) were passed. In view of the strong opposition aroused, Bismarck gradually became convinced that a concordat would serve the German Empire better. At the end of the 1870s the previous policy was reversed and peace was made with the new Pope, Leo XIII.
licence	The French equivalent to a bachelor's degree, taken at a university. The licence ès lettres is the equivalent of the bachelor of arts degree, while the licence ès sciences is the equivalent of the bachelor of science degree.
Ligue de la patrie française	Founded in 1899 during the Dreyfus Affair, typified all that was bigoted, anti-Semitic, and reactionary in public life.
Ligue des droits de l'homme	Founded during the Dreyfus Affair to safeguard the rights of citizens; the counterpart of the Ligue de la patrie française.
Ligue des patriotes	Founded in 1882 by Paul Déroulède (1846-1914) to avenge France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. It supported Boulangisme for a time, and campaigned for revision of the constitution and a plebiscitary republic under a strong leader.
lycées and collèges	A lycée is a secondary school of the State, headed by a proviseur and staffed by professeurs agrégés or professeurs licenciés. A collège is also a secondary school, either independent and denominational (usually Roman Catholic), or maintained by a local authority (possibly with some funding by the State). From the 16th century on, secondary education developed rapidly, and many schools were founded by the religious orders, notably the Jesuits (e.g., the Collège de Clermont) and later the Congrégation de l'Oratoire (e.g., the Collège de Juilly, f. 1638). Most of these schools were suppressed during the Revolution, though some were later resuscitated as lycées - the name adopted for the secondary schools under Napoleon's unified system of state secondary and higher education. At first, the lycées were run on semi-military lines, and established only in the big towns; in the smaller towns it was left to the municipality to provide secondary education by founding and supporting collèges. Famous Paris lycées include the Lycée Condorcet (f. 1804, and first known as the Lycée Bonaparte), the Lycée Henri IV (f. 1804 as the Lycée Napoléon), the Lycée Louis-le-Grand (the former Collège de Clermont), and the Lycée Saint-Louis (f. 1820 on the site of the old Collège d'Harcourt).
Mercure de France	(1) Originally the Mercure galant (1672-1820, a periodical founded by Jean Donneau de Visé (1638-1710), the author of farces and vaudevilles, and a critic of Molière. It carried news of court and literary circles, literary criticism, poetry, etc., combining politics and literature in a light, agreeable form suited to a wide public. Published monthly from 1678, it was highly popular and enjoyed the favour of Louis XIV, though it was attacked from certain literary quarters (e.g., La Bruyère). In 1724, it became the Mercure de France, with a greater literary scope and semi-official status (its editor was appointed by the government and profits were devoted to pensions for men of letters). Just before the Revolution the management was in the hands of C.-J. Panckoucke. Its literary features continued during the Revolutionary era (when for a time it was called Le Mercure français), and it was little molested. Napoleon suppressed it in 1811, but it reappeared after his fall and was popular with the constitutional party just after the Restoration. Contributors included T. Corneille, G. Raynal, Marmontel, and Mallet du Pan (editors), La Harpe, Chamfort, and Voltaire. (2) A famous literary and artistic monthly founded by Alfred Vallete, his wife Rachilde, and other Symbolists, and published between 1890 and 1965. Initially it was particularly associated with Symbolism, but it made a feature of printing original work by writers of all schools and nationalities.
Modernism, Catholic	A movement within the Roman Catholic Church which aimed at bringing the tradition of Catholic belief into closer relation with the modern outlook in philosophy, the historical and other sciences, and social ideas. It arouse spontaneously in several countries in the late 19th century. It was especially strong in France. The main tenets of the movement were: (1) whole hearted adoption of the critical view of the Bible, by then generally accepted outside the Roman Catholic Church; (2) an inclination to reject the "intellectualism" of Scholastic theology and to subordinate doctrine to practice; and (3) a teleological attitude to history, finding the meaning of the historic process in its issue rather than in its origins. Since the Church's growth took place under the guidance of the Spirit, the essence of the Gospel will lie in its full expansion rather than in its primitive kernel. This belief was sometimes reflected in extreme scepticism about Christian origins. Leaders of the movement include A. Loisy, M. Blondel, L. Laberthonnière, F. von Hügel, and G. Tyrrell. Leo XIII tolerated the movement. Pius X condemned it in 1907. In the wider sense, the term "Modernist" has been used of radical critics of traditional theology in non-Roman Catholic Churches, especially of the thought associated with the "Modern Churchmen's Union."
Le National	A daily paper founded in 1830 by Armand Carrel, Adolphe Thiers, and François-Auguste Mignet just before publication of the ordonnances abolishing liberty of the press. A protest, signed by editors of other papers, and issued from the National's offices, did much to provoke the Revolution of 1830. After 1830, the paper stood for a constitutional monarchy on the English model. Later, it objected to Louis-Philippe's policy of peace at any price and turned Republican. The coup d'état of December, 1851 ended its existence. In 1844-45, Le National published series of articles on the Cours de philosophie positive by Emile Littré, establishing him as Comte's chief disciple.
Rerum Novarum (1891)	An encyclical of Leo XIII, intended to apply traditional Catholic teaching to the conditions created by the Industrial Revolution. On the ground that society originated in the family, it proclaimed private property a natural right and condemned socialism as infringing it; it upheld the ideal of a just wage, defined as "enough to support the wage-earner in reasonable and frugal comfort" with a family; and it maintained that the natural place of women was in the home. The 40th anniversary of its publication was marked by the issue of Quadragesimo Anno; on the 80th anniversary in 1971, Paul VI published an Apostolic Letter on Social Justice.
Revue Blanche	A Symbolist review, founded by Alexandre Natanson in 1891, and published until 1903. Contributors included Mallarmé, H. de Régnier, Vielé-Griffin, Blum (literary and dramatic critic), Debussy (music critic). It was one of the first reviews to introduce Ibsen and Tolstoy to French readers.
Revue de métaphysique et de morale	A leading quarterly philosophical journal founded in 1893. At first it was issued six times a year, and after 1920 appeared quarterly. Founded by Xavier Léon, with the collaboration of Elie Halévy. The title of the journal reflected not only a a reaction against positivism but also, affirmatively, a belief that the conclusions of speculative philosophy could have a practical value. Léon served as editor until his death in 1935, when he was succeeded by Dominique Parodi. The latter died in 1955, and Jean Wahl took over, by which time it was the principal French philosophical journal. Until World War II special numbers of the Revue were occasionally devoted to a single topic. For example, issues were devoted to Kant (1904, the centennial of his death), Rousseau (1912, the bicentennial of his birth). American philosophy (1922, with an article by John Dewey, W. E. Hocking, C. I. Lewis, R. B. Perry, and others), Pascal (1923, the tercentenary of his birth), Hegel (1931, the centennial of his death), and Descartes (1937, the tercentenary of the Discourse on Method). The journal's contributors have included all French philosophers of note as well as many eminent foreigners, such as Bertrand Russell, A. N. Whitehead, and Bernard Bosanquet; Benedetto Croce and Giovanni Gentile; Miguel de Unamuno; and Edmund Husserl. Among the articles of more than ordinary interest which have appeared in the journal are Henri Poincaré's "La Logique de l'infini" (1909), Henri Bergson's "L'Intuition philosophique" (1911), Étienne Gilson's "Art et métaphysique" (1916), Gabriel Marcel's "Existence et objectivité" (1925), Léon Brunschvicg's "Religion et philosophie" (1935), JoséFerrater Mora's "Philosophie et architecture" (1955), and Wahl's "Physique atomique et connaissance humaine" (1962).
Revue des Deux Mondes	Founded in 1829 as a review largely devoted to home and foreign affairs, it was acquired in 1831 by François Buloz (1803-77), sometime editor of the Revue de Paris and director of the Comédie-française. He developed its literary and philosophical sides and made it one of the best periodicals of its kind in Europe. Published fornightly from 1832, its early contributors included Balzac, Hugo, Musset, Vigny, G. Sand, Sainte-Beuve, Mérimée. Having merged with Hommes et Mondes in 1956, it survives as the monthly Nouvelle Revue des Deux Mondes.
Revue historique	Founded in 1876 by Gabriel Monod as a quarterly historical journal.
Revue international de sociologie	Journal founded by René Worms in 1893.
Revue philosophique de la France et de l'étranger	Founded in 1876 by Théodule Ribot, who served as editor for the next 40 years, until his death in 1916. Originally issued monthly and later issued six times a year, it is now published quarterly. Under Ribot's direction, the Revue gave primary emphasis to articles on psychology. Philosophy began to gain predominance nunder Ribot's successor, Lucien Lévy-Bruhl, who edited the Revue for 23 years until his death in 1939. The editors in succeeding years, when philosophy was fully established as the main arena of discussion, were Émile Brehier and Paul Masson-Oursel (1940-52), Masson-Oursel and Pierre-Maxime Schuhl (1952-56), and Schuhl alone (after 1956). Within philosophy, the Revue's strongest contribution has been represented not so much by publication of original hypotheses as by careful analysis and criticism of old and new viewpoints. Useful articles, for example, have been published on Leibniz, Hume, and English linguistic philosophy. An entire issue was devoted to Lévy-Bruhl in 1957 on the one hundredth anniversary of his birth. The coverage of philosophy "de l'étranger" has consisted in large part of some translations from English and German, extensive critical reviews of books, and summaries of periodical articles. Among the more original contributions in the Revue have been C. S. Peirce's "La Logique de la science" (1878-9), Étienne Gilson's "Essai sur la vie intérieure" (1920), Raymond Ruyer's "Ce qui est vivant et ce qui est mort dans la matérialisme" (1933), and Georges Gurvitch's "Le Problème de la sociologie de la connaissance" (1957-8). Famous contributors have included Rudolf Hermann Lotze, Herbert Spencer, J. S. Mill, Wilhelm Wundt, Henri Bergson, and Georges Sorel.
Société française de philosophie	Professional society founded by Xavier Léon in 1901.
Société de Sociologie de Paris	Founded by RenéWorms in Paris in 1895.
Syllabus Errorum	A set of 80 theses, already condemned in earlier pronouncements of Pius IX and promulgated as erroneous in 1864. They covered a wide area, including pantheism, rationalism, the Church and its rights, civil society and its relation to the Church, ethics, and modern Liberalism. The covering letter seemd to make the Syllabus dogmatically binding. Its issue aroused a storm of protest.
Ultramontanism	A tendency in the Roman Catholic Church which favors the centralization of authority in the Papal Curia as opposed to national and diocesan independence. It developed in the 17th and 18th centuries, when national movements such as Gallicanism and Josephinism became discredited either as involved in definite heresy or as countenancing the liberal anti-Christian movements which found expression in the French Revolution of 1789. The main stages of the triumph of Ultramonantism were the revival in 1814 of the Jesuit Order, which was the mainstay of curial as opposed to local authority; the publication in 1864 of the Syllabus, in which Catholicism and liberalism were held to be incompatible; and the declaration of the Vatican Council in 1870 that the Pope is infallible when he makes a solemn pronouncement on faith or morals.

A Durkheim Glossary

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